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This is a tutorial to explain the Grammar of the Old High Jelbic language.

Syntax[]

The sentence structure of the language is SOV (Subject Object Verb) and uses particles to denote which case nouns in the sentence are in. This differs from Luthori where the verb follows the subject (SVO: Subject Verb Object).

Every clause will contain at least one of subject, object or verb, although as all three can be implied from context and objects may not always be necessary, parts may be omitted. More complex uses of this will be discussed later.

Note that by convention, when Luthorised (written in the standard Luthori alphabet, like this), all nouns are capitalised. Commas, whilst useful, are not standardised.

Cases and Particles[]

Particles are used to modify nouns to indicate case, mark chronological limits, show contrast ("but"), pose a question or emphasise a point.

A variety of particles are used to label certain aspects of the sentence. These can depend on which case the items referred to in the sentence are in, they might be conjunctive, some modify nouns or make lists, whilst others some finish sentences to add assertions or requests. These are detailed below.

Predicates and Topics[]

For predicates alone, such as answering a simple question, no particle is needed. The effective copula is ajozuo, derived from the present progressive/continuous form of ajo, the verb "to be". Hence it literally means "is being", but would be more closer in use to the English "is".

Heiji ajozuo. - "[It] is Good."

Note that the verb is at the end, but the subject has been omitted. This sentence means little without understanding what the speaker is pointing out, as it has been taken out of context. Conversations need the topic defined to make sure all speakers are talking about the same thing; the topic particle orzy is used here, and the topic usually starts the sentence:

Esti orzy heiji ajozuo. - "Life is good"

The system of indefinite/definite articles (the and a/an) isn't present in Jelbék, so "life" in this sentence could mean a specific person's life, an unspecified life or life in general: context is key.

Nominative, and Accusative[]

When an action takes place, most of the time it involves doing something to something else, this something else being the direct object of the action. This object is in the accusative case and uses the grzy particle. The subject carries out the action and is named -- in the nominative case -- with wrzy. The distinction is important as in the following example:

Nka wrzy Mouzij grzy fitomojek. - "The Cat stopped the Mouse."

compared to:

Nka grzy Mouzil wrzy fitomojek. - "The Mouse stopped the Cat." (unusual sentence order)

When either of these is also the topic of the sentence, orzy replaces wrzy or grzy. The context will usually imply which one is replaced, whilst still pointing out what the conversation is about. These are the only two particles that orzy overwrites, as the need for an agent to perform the action and an object for it to be performed on means which one was replaced becomes apparent.

Dative, Time, Locations and the Passive Voice[]

The dative case is used for indirect objects, such as recipients of a given item. The particle hrzy is used in such sentences, such as reporting something to a newspaper in this example:

Kae orzy Jelbék Prsakijsrlji Lrn hrzy Frjogad grzy aprtmojek. - "I reported the fire to the Jelbék Prsakijsrlji Lrn."

Further uses of hrzy include other indirect uses, such as the time of an event, destination of a movement (locative case) or location of a fleeting event (a chance meeting of two people walking in opposite directions, rather than when two people were deliberately remaining in one place when something happened). The same particle is used even if more than one of the above are present in the same sentence:

Kriertrunak hrzy Grsku hrzy fahmojek. - "Yesterday, I went to school."
Srne hrzy Mouzij grzy jajomek. - "The mice met at the table." (implication: They are not staying long).

The final use of hrzy is the passive voice, where an action is not undertaken by an "agent", but happens to a "patient". In Luthori, this is usually represented as an patient "was/were/are being verb-ed (on/upon)" instead of directly using the verb. Special verb forms exist for this voice and will be explained later. Here, hrzy marks the agent when it is specified:

Mouzij orzy Nka hrzy tokmojijuo - "The mice are being preyed upon by the cat."

If a location where an event occurs is somewhere where the subject will remain for a while, especially something that facilitates the action, then the marker drzy is used for the instrumental case. It can also apply to the means through which something was undertaken, especially languages:

Grsku drzy Jelbék grzy irojozuo - "[I] am learning Jelbék at school".
Jelbék drzy utrmojuo - "[I] am speaking in Jelbék".

Otherwise, drzy represents a cause for a following action. This can be used to combine two clauses into complex sentences to show both cause and effect, with a purpose like the Luthori word "because":

Mouzij orzy Nka hrzy tokmojijuo drzy, Srne hrzy Mouzij grzy fahmojek. - "Because the mice were being preyed upon by the cat, the mice went under the table."

Notice how hrzy is used twice above, but again the context in each clause indicates which use each represents.

Ranges, Extents and Origins (To/From)[]

Time periods can be represented by firja and timad, which stand for "from" and "until". These may be clock times as in the first example, or the times of specified events as in the second example, formed by modifying the word Krna ("time") with a clause describing the event:

Kyuzezlrntu firja Deisràzezlrntu timad Grsku drzy Jelbék grzy irojo. - "From the ninth hour to the eleventh hour, I learn Jelbék in school."
Shlajokrna firja Grzmokrna timad Hikns grzy sedrijofetak. - "From the fighting time to the winning time, I will serve this country." (From fight to victory, I will serve my country).

Further to this, firja can indicate the location something came from or an event from which a consequence occurred. Unlike drzy, firja in the second use can be in either the first clause, the second clause or even a separate sentence (provided it follows directly); the order chosen depends on what the speaker wishes to emphasise (note that the context determines who is being referred to in this examples as the topic is not explicitly stated, so is presumed to be the speaker):

Jelbe firja krmojek firja, Jelbék utrmo. - "Because [I] came from Jelbania, [I] speak Jelbék."

or:

Jelbék utrmo, Jelbe firja krmojek firja. - "[I] speak Jelbék, because [I] came from Jelbania."

Firja and timad together can be used to determine a range of locations or other variables, as used in the anthem, Jelbék Prsakijsrlji Lrn:

Taghe firja Jezstad timad Jelbékai ajozuo. - "From the fields to the cities, we are the Jelbanian people."

Firja and timad can also be used to form conjunctions, discussed later.

Genitive/Possessive/Preposition[]

To show that a property belongs to something else -- the genitive/possessive case -- the owner gains the suffix -ék, then directly precedes the possession with. These are the equivalent of the "'s" clitic and "X of Y" forms in Luthori.

This forms an appositive genitive as the two phrases are in apposition (next to each other) in the examples in this section:

Dofkaiék Shmas. - "Idiot's Action"/"Action of an idiot" (e.g., "A Fool's Errand").

If a noun ends with "e", it is replaced with the "é" of the suffix:

Jelbék Grzmojad. - "Jelbania's Victory"/"Victory of Jelbania".

If a noun ends with d or k, the suffix becomes "aék" for ease of pronunciation (which academics believe was admittedly rarely considered in the language):

Avjogadaék Frj. - "Love (Loving)'s Fire"/"Fire of Love".

Another crucial use of this form is for relative positions in prepositions. The language defines above, below, beside, between, outside and inside as properties of the object referred to:

Re orzy Fluzék Abue/Besh/Tonb/Naki/Sot drzy tachásjo. - "He stands above/below/beside/in/out of the river".

Use of beid(between) requires two objects to be listed, which will be explained in the next section.

Lists[]

Unlike the use of commas and "and" to form a list in Luthori, Jelbék requires each item in a list to be separated with either trzy or yrzy. The difference between these two "and"s is that the former defines a finite list, such that no unspecified item is referred to, whereas the latter defines a non-finite list, the equivalent of ending the list with "and the like/and so on/etc." in Luthori:

Re orzy Fluz trzy Domuraék Beid drzy tachásjo. - "He stands between the river and the village."

Note that only the second item in the list takes the possessive for this preposition and as such a more literal translation would be "He stands in the village's between with the river". Domura trzy Fluzék Beid would have exactly the same overall meaning, but the literal translation (and emphasis) would be changed slightly.

The second type of list, the non-finite, is declared as follows:

Jeztri yrzy Zykhikoék Drsme yrzy Srwe tojomek. - "[I] took [a] hawk, someone's daughter, [a] beer (and other things besides)."

"In Addition"[]

The additive particle mrzy can be thought of as the Luthori "too", "also" or "as well", especially when used in an exchange. Several rules apply to its use:

  • The particle must mark the factor in addition.
  • mrzy replaces orzy and grzy (if they mark the same noun) as the emphasis shifts to the object in common.
  • mrzy follows other particles.
  • A positive verb can only be replied to with a positive and a negative with a negative. When someone/something did not do something in addition or did something by contrast to others who did not, the verb negation provides sufficient emphasis.

Taking the above example, Jeztri yrzy Zykhikoék Drsme yrzy Srwe tojomek., several replies are possible:

Isre mrzy tojomek. - "I also took those."
Hye orzy Káhé grzy Torbaki ajozuo Nka mrzy tojomek. - "You took a three-headed cat as well." (lit. "You took a three head-having cat as well". Counters will be explained later.
Jezkai orzy Fers mrzy tojomek. - "Jezkai also took a horse."
Hye orzy Vrnédomura drzy mrzy Kribjek grzy tojomek. - "You took those things from Vrnédomura (Green Village) too."

Note how in the final example, drzy is combined with mrzy rather than replaced. To illustrate the final rule, the following example would not be used as a reply to the above, as the verb negation provides sufficient emphasis:

*Isre mrzy tojomek'rza. - "I did not take those in addition." (tojomekkrza is contracted to tojomek'rza as double consonents are elided to one).

However, if someone was accusing someone of taking an object, as in this three-way exchange, it would become an acceptable reply if the second person also denies it:

1: Wrn grzy tojomomek zri - "[Have you] taken the wine?"
2: Tojomek'rza yrzé - "[I] Have not taken [it]!"
3: Isre mrzy tojomek'rza. - "I also have not taken [it]."

Notice the use of the question marker zri and emphatic marker yrzé which can be considered as an exclamation mark.

Comparison[]

Comparison takes a simple form, with superlatives and comparatives used only as emphatics within this framework (Jez- for "most"; Hldjez- for "more"). Gerdzy can be thought of as the Luthori "than/compared to" and the sentence defines a property or existence in relation to the noun. The sentence order is versatile for emphasis:

Jelbe gerdzy Pnte grzy Nrkta ajozuo. - "Compared to Jelbania, Pontesi is North."
Jezstad orzy Domura gerdzy Azi ajozuo. - "Cities: Compared to villages, they are alive."

To compare values or properties, moki represents "more of" and is related to counters (discussed later). The comparison can be implied:

Pnte gerdzy Jelbe hrzy Fluz grzy moki ajozuo. - "Compared to Pontesi, in Jelbania, there are more rivers."
Jelbe hrzy Fluz grzy moki ajozuo. - "There are more rivers in Jelbania (compared to an unspecified place)."

Conjunctions[]

Conjunctions link two clauses together, either for reinforcement of, justification of or contrast to a previous point. Some conjoin two clauses into a sentence, whereas some link a second sentence to the context of the first.

Hrerwa (Luthori: "but/however") and Drmwa (Luthori: "even if, despite"; a contraction of drzy mrzy) go to the end of a first clause to explain the second, as in this example exchange:

1: Taghe grzy krajmojrnat hrerwa katakji ajozuo. - "I want to plough the field but I'm tired."
2: Katakji ajozuo drmwa shmojijon. - "Even if you're tired, you have to do it."

The second category of sentence-starting conjuctions often have stems built from Kri- ("that") or hi- ("this"). These prefix drmwa ("despite"), firja ("from") and timad ("until") to explain the justification or limits of an action, sometimes affording elaborate combinations for complex reasoning:

Kridrmwa avjozuo yrzé. - "Despite that, I love (am loving) you!"
Hifirja Krishmas orzy wakrjotrnat. - "Because of this (from this), I want to understand that action"
Kritimad Azre grzy heijomek hrerwa Krifirja Dof ajomek. - "Until then I supported them, however because of that, I was stupid."

Kri- and hi- can also prefix the gerunds of verbs (which can be thought of as noun forms of verbs) to refer to the action, often followed with drmwa, firja or timad to be used in the manners above:

Krisagjogad firja znmojuo. - "That being said, [I] oppose (am opposing)."
Hishlajogad timad katakmojekjrza. - "Until (Before) this fight [I] did not sleep."
Krikatakmojrzajuo drmwa tachásjohylak'rza grzmojek. - "Despite this insomnia (not sleeping), [I] stood and won."

In addition to these, There is a special conjunctive form of verbs used for a list of actions. Tachásjohylak'rza ("[I] stood (continual)") above comes from tachásjohylak -- an example of this conjunctive form -- and krza, the negative suffix; this allows the final verb grzmojek ("[I] won") to follow and shows that the victory came from standing.

Sentence-Finals[]

Sentence-Final particles only have equivalents as punctuation or tag questions in Luthori.

Yrzá or yrzé are emphatics and can be viewed as exclamation marks:

Kriertrunak hrzy kaejomek'rza yrzá. - "[You] didn't return yesterday!"

Zri offers a question marker:

Shmojetak trzy sagjomek zri. - "Did [I] say that [I] would?"

Note the use of trzy to indicate direct speech (this will be explained in another tutorial).

Finally, it is possible to add a "tag question" to confirm understanding with Nrzé, such as the ever-prevalent "right?", "know what I mean?" etc. used in direct speech:

Isre grzy wakrjo nrzé. - "[You] understand me, right?"

Verbs[]

Jelbék verbs exist in two classes: -jo verbs and -mo verbs. Exceptions are rare, being limited to verbs that refer to ongoing states (knowing something, existing) and thus take continuous forms rather than present. However, all verbs conjugate regularly, with the exceptions limited to usage restrictions.

Conjugation table[]

These tables show the forms of each class of verb, with an example of each: jajo ("to meet") and jlemo ("to think").

The existence of a form in the table does not mean it is necessarily used for all verbs. The -(jo) and -(mo) stems in parentheses may be dropped in colloquial speech, for poetic license or when forming complicated structures. Each form will be explained below.

Building Complex Forms: The tables show how the dictionary form of the verb is changed when making a single change. When building a verb form, work down the table and stack the endings as needed and appropriate. For example, from jajo below, a past passive may be formed by using both -mi then -mek in the order they appear in the table, to give jajomimek, "to have been meet".

Verb (-jo Class) Conjugation Table
Verb Form -jo jajo Luthori
First Stage
Present -jo jajo "[I] meet (someone)."
Intransitive -(jo)kaf jajokaf "[I] meet." (unused in Luthori)
Passive -(jo)mi jajomi "[I] am met."
Conjunctive -(jo)hylak jajohylak "[I] meet/will meet/have met (someone) then..."
Continuous -(jo)zuo jajozuo "[I] am meeting (someone)."
Imperative -(jo)gah jajogah "Meet (someone)!" (an order)
Causative -(jo)kon jajokon "[I] am allowed to/have to meet (someone)."
Volitional -(jo)shu jajoshu "Let's meet (someone)/Shall [I] meet (someone)?"
Second Stage
Past -(jo)mek jajomek "[I] met (someone)."
Future -(jo)fetak jajofetak "[I] will meet (someone)."
Desire -(jo)trnat jajotrnat "[I] want to meet (someone)."
Third Stage
Negative -(jo)krza jajokrza "[I] did not met (someone)."
Conditional -(jo)matra jajomatra "If [I] meet (someone) then..."
Gerund -(jo)gad jajogad "Meeting."
Adjectival
Adjective -zi jajozi "Approachable/Sociable" (lit., "meeting-like"))
Adverb -za jajoza "Approachably/Sociably" (lit., "meetingly")
Verb (-mo Class) Conjugation Table
Verb Form -mo jlemo Luthori
First Stage
Present -mo jlemo "[I] think (something)."
Intransitive -(mo)jaf jlemojaf "[I] think (generally)."
Passive -(mo)ji jlemoji "[I] am thought of."
Conjunctive -(mo)jylak jlemojylak "[I] think/will think/have thought (of something) then..."
Continuous -(mo)juo jlemojuo "[I] am thinking (something)."
Imperative -(mo)jah jlemojah "Think (something)!" (an order)
Causative -(mo)jon jlemojon "[I] am allowed to/have to think (something)."
Volitional -(mo)ju jlemoju "Let's think (something)/Shall [I] think (of something)?"
Second Stage
Past -(mo)jek jlemojek "[I] thought (of something)."
Future -(mo)jetak jlemojetak "[I] will think (of something)."
Desire -(mo)jrnat jlemojrnat "[I] want to think (of something)."
Third Stage
Negative -(mo)jrza jlemojrza "[I] did not think (something)."
Conditional -(mo)jatra jlemojatra "If [I] think (something) then..."
Gerund -(mo)jad jlemojad "Thinking (something)."
Adjectival
Adjective -ji jleji "Thoughtful." (lit., "Thought-like")
Adverb -ja jleja "Thoughtfully." (lit., "Thinkingly")

The verb forms, some of which may be combined, determine when, how long for, under which conditions the action takes place; whether the speaker receives or performs the action; whether it is an order, compulsion, permission, desire or suggestion; and whether it is negated or not.

Present[]

-(jo) or -(mo)

Explanation: The present form is the most basic form of the verb and so is used as the dictionary form. It describes instantaneous actions that are happening in the precise moment or immediate future.

Usage Limitations: The basic form of the verb has no limits.

Derivatives: All other forms of verbs are derived from this form, although sometimes this may not make sense. See the notes on the other forms to see which are useful.

For example, if a verb takes no object, it is already an intransitive verb and so making the intransitive form of it makes an entirely redundant "double intransitive".

Intransitive[]

-(jo)kaf or -(mo)jaf

Explanation: Some verbs are transitive and so they take an object. In the jlemo example above, a person can either think of something -- the thought being the object of the verb using grzy (or orzy if it is also the topic) -- or just think in general. This latter case, without an object, is the intransitive form.

With some verbs, the difference between a transitive and intransitive verb actually translates to two different verbs in Luthori. Sagjo, "to say", is a transitive verb which takes what is said as the object. The intransitive form of this, sagjokaf, would be translated as, "to speak"; this verb never takes an object in the same way you would not "speak" something.

Usage Limitations: Sometimes, this verb form is not used:

  • Some verbs don't have intransitive equivalents, such as jajo above. When someone "meets", it is usually with someone in a transitive form, so this makes little sense.
  • Some verbs already don't take objects and are already intransitive. Krjo, "to die", does not take an object as it is a change of personal state; a "double intransitive" would be unnecessary and sound strange.
  • Some verbs which could form intransitives for which there is already a stand-alone verb that are better-known. Sagjo, "to say", could be used as sagjokaf, "to speak", but the verb, utrmo, "to speak", also exists (as such, the intransitive form of "utrmo" would be another unusual "double intransitive" as above).

Derivatives: The intransitive can form all the forms that a transitive verb can, but not always the passive: if the passive form requires the speaker to receive something/someone else's action as an object, which intransitive verbs lack, it may not make sense.

-jo verbs: Replace the -(jo) stems in the table with -(jo)kaf to form further derivatives.

-mo verbs: Replace the -(mo) stems in the table with -(mo)jaf to form further derivatives.

Passive[]

-(jo)mi or -(mo)ji

Explanation: Every action given to an object -- therefore every transitive verb -- can be received or perceived by the speaker as the "patient" in the passive voice. The agent carrying out the action is marked with hrzy. The passive voice is used by academics and other formal writing but may sound aloof if used excessively.

An example from megàmo, "to give", is its passive form megàmoji, "to be given (by someone)":

Nka orzy Jezkai drzy Kae trzy megàmoji. - "The cat was given by Jezkai to me."

Usage Limitations: Sometimes, this verb form is not used:

  • It is sometimes nonsensical to have a passive intransitive verb, where an action cannot be received by someone.
  • Some verbs already do not take an object as they represent a change of personal state -- krjo ("to die"), for example -- so may not be used in the passive voice.

Derivatives: All further forms can be derived from the passive voice, although care must be taken when forming passive intransitives to ensure they make sense.

-jo verbs: Replace the -(jo) stems in the table with -(jo)mi to form further derivatives.

-mo verbs: Replace the -(mo) stems in the table with -(mo)ji to form further derivatives.

Conjunctive[]

-(jo)hylak or -(mo)jylak

Explanation: The conjunctive form is used to show all be the last action in a sequence, which could be thought of as the verb followed by the Luthori, "and then". It can show a past, present or future series of events but only the final verb needs to show the tense.

Examples with optional commas:

utrmojylak, fitomojek. - "[I] spoke, then stopped".
Hikrna Domura hrzy fahmojylak, Jezkai grzy jajohylak, Shmb grzy ukétrjo. - "Today [I] go to the village, meet Jezkai and receive a sheep."
Krmojylak, zsijohylak, grzmojek. - "[I] came, [I] saw, [I] conquered (won)."

It can also be used to form compound verbs, such as the combination of fitomo ("to stop") and utrmo ("to speak") to form utrmojylakfitomo ("to stop speaking" (lit. "to speaking-stop").

The negative form can show that an event was not undertaken or did not happen:

Jezkai grzy zsijohylak'rza, kaerjomek. - "[I] did not see Jezkai and returned."

Usage Limitations: The conjuctive is never used for the final verb in a sentence, unless it is part of a compound verb.

Despite not being used for tenses, it is perfectly valid to use a continuous conjunctive form to show that an action or state was in progress or valid at a starting or intermediate point in a series of actions.

Derivatives: Derivatives of the conjunctive form are limited to the passive, intransitive (the stems of both preceding the conjunctive), continuous causative, negative or desire forms.

The others forms are unnecessary:

  • Those that reflect tense (past and future), as the tense is reflected by the final verb.
  • The imperative and volitional voices would also be applied to the final verb in a list of orders or suggestions, not the conjunctive.
  • The conditional is incompatible as the conjunctive either expresses ideas that definitely did or did not happen; or definitely are or are not planned to occur.
  • The gerund can only be formed with sentence-final verbs to give a complete idea; the conjunctive requires something to follow it so a gerund would imply an unspecified idea.

The final part of compound verbs can form the same forms as the original verb, provided the meanings still make sense.

-jo verbs: Replace the -(jo) stems in the table with -(jo)hylak to form further derivatives.

-mo verbs: Replace the -(mo) stems in the table with -(mo)jylak to form further derivatives.

Continuous[]

-(jo)zuo or -(mo)juo

Explanation: The continuous form suggests that something started has not yet finished. The two principal uses are to show that an action has started but not yet finished ("dynamic aspect"), as well as suggesting a state is ongoing ("continuous aspect"):

Re krjozuo. - "He is dying." cf. Re krjo. - "He dies."
Kai ajozuo. - "[I] am a man (lit. am being)."

This second use forms the principal form of verbs that show a state continuing, which serves to separate the "continuous aspect" use of this form from the "dynamic aspect". Such verbs include ajo ("to be") and shikjo ("to know") to show that someone or something continues to exist (ajozuo) or continues to know/be known (shikjozuo).

Usage Limitations: The continuous form can be used with most verbs, except those which represent sudden, instantaneous changes.

Derivatives: Most derivatives of the continuous form are possible, but care must be taken to maintain sense depending on whether a continuous state or dynamic action is being referred to.

-jo verbs: Replace the -(jo) stems in the table with -(jo)zuo to form further derivatives.

-mo verbs: Replace the -(mo) stems in the table with -(mo)juo to form further derivatives.

Imperative[]

-(jo)gah or -(mo)jah

Explanation: The imperative form gives orders solely from a position of authority, such as a teacher-student, parent-child or manager-employee perspective. Especially used with the yrzá/yrzé emphatic in the positive:

Krmojah yrzá - "Come [here (now)]!"

Occasionally used for dramatic effect between peers:

Krjogahkrza - "Don't die!"

Note how the emphatic particle and negative form rhyme. It is believed that the negative stem was once a pair of negative emphatic particles in their own right in Proto-Jelbic so the later forms of the language never use yrzá with the negative imperative as a consequence.

Care must be taken in speech to distinguish between such emphatic positive and negative orders. A shorter a and hard k compared to a long á and soft y are crucial to understanding the difference for -jo verbs. The j in -jrza for negative -mo verbs is harder to distinguish from the y' in the manner of Luthori "y" and "i".

Usage Limitations: Imperatives can only used as sentence-final verbs.

It is not considered polite to use with peers and the word krdaz ("please") after a verb is a softer request.

Derivatives: Most derivatives of imperative forms are possible, except for the conjunctive (as the imperative must be final), the desire form (an order trumps desire), the conditional (imperative must be final) and the gerund (the order cannot be made into an noun this way).

Similarly, past imperatives are not used: the order cannot be retroactively completed.

-jo verbs: Replace the -(jo) stems in the table with -(jo)gah to form further derivatives.

-mo verbs: Replace the -(mo) stems in the table with -(mo)jah to form further derivatives.

Causative[]

-(jo)kon or -(mo)jon

Explanation: The causative forms suggest a compulsion exists to make a junior undertake an action at the speaker's behest or for a specified reason. It can also express the granting of permission if the outcome is positive:

Jezkai grzy Taghe drzy hatajmojon. - "Jezkai has to work in the field [by my command]."
Frnd ajokrza firja, Jezkai grzy Taghe drzy hatajmojon. - "Because there is no money [that he has], Jezkai has to work in the field."
Jezkai orzy Srwe grzy ukétrjokonmek. - "[I] made (let) Jezkai receive a beer."

The causative can be used to request permission, by literally asking for the compulsion to do something with krdaz:

Kae orzy Srwe grzy ukétrjokon krdaz. - "Please may I receive a beer (lit. Please compel me to receive a beer)."

A powerful use of the causative is combining it with the passive. The causative-passive shows that the speaker was forced to do something and is often used to express regret or explain why events happened against the "patient"'s will:

Taghe orzy frjomikonmek. Kri shmokrzamatra, Jezkai wrzy Kaék Frto akrosmojek. - "The fields had to be burned [by me]. if I did not do it, Jezkai would have punished my father."

The above sentence contains an example of the conditional form, which will be explained more later.

Usage Limitations: It is important to remember that the causative is used when compelling an inferior to do something and the causative-passive is used when being compelled by a superior to do something.

Derivatives: Most derivatives of causative and causative-passive verbs can be used, although some combinations may sound sarcastic or downright strange with the imperative, volitional and desire forms, unless referring to the compulsion of a third party.

-jo verbs: Replace the -(jo) stems in the table with -(jo)kon to form further derivatives.

-mo verbs: Replace the -(mo) stems in the table with -(mo)jon to form further derivatives.

Volitional[]

-(jo)shu or -(mo)ju

Explanation: The volitional form can make a tentative suggestion of either someone else's state or something to be done by oneself and/or another in the immediate future, which would be expressed in Luthori as a soft question.

Rie grzy kudnkjoshu - "Shall we thank her?"
Srnkjogadsrlji ajoshu - "[Are you] sad (lit. [are you] Shrinking-souled)?"

Usage Limitations: The volitional form can only be sentence-final.

The volitional form is mostly used between peers or with one level of social separation to suggest a solution to a problem. It is considered audacious to use it with distant superiors.

Derivatives: The volitional form cannot be used with the conjunctive or conditional forms, as it must be sentence final; the imperative and desire forms, as an order or desire is more direct than a suggestion; and the gerund as the suggestion cannot be implied this way. The past and future forms may speculate of past and future states, but not make past of future suggestions of action.

-jo verbs: Replace the -(jo) stems in the table with -(jo)shu to form further derivatives.

-mo verbs: Replace the -(mo) stems in the table with -(mo)ju to form further derivatives.

Past[]

-(jo)mek or -(mo)jek

Explanation: The past tense (with this past participle form) details events that happened in the past: either actions that are now completed, or states of being that are no longer true:

Krs'kaisrne grzy znmojek. - "[I] opposed the Krs'kaisrne (lit. "United People's Table", the former government of Jelbania)."
Krikrna, Esti grzy bozuji ajomek. - "[At] that time, life was bad."

This form can modify the conjunctive form and continual form to express a past event in a sequence or the state of "having been doing (something)". Past causation and desires are also frequently expressed. Making a past gerund expresses a previous state or action.

Usage Limitations: The past tense is a fundamental part of language and barely limited in its own right.

Derivatives: Most derivatives of the past tense are possible, except for conjunctive forms, as they are not necessary; the future form, due to the contradiction it would cause; and the imperative, due to the impossibility of retroactively completing the order.

-jo verbs: Replace the -(jo) stems in the table with -(jo)mek to form further derivatives.

-mo verbs: Replace the -(mo) stems in the table with -(mo)jek to form further derivatives.

Future[]

-(jo)fetak or -(mo)jetak

Explanation: The future tense details events that are planned to happen in the future: either actions that are will be commenced in future, or states of being that will be true:

Dekyuzezlrntu timad Zykhiko grzy nrjofetak. - "[I] will have nominated someone by 7pm (lit. "The 19th hour")".
Krikrna timad Re orzy Krzi ajofetak yrzé! - "By that time, he'll be dead!"

The future can be combined with volitional, desire, causative and imperative forms to express or speculate on future orders and states. Making a future gerund expresses a previous state or action.

Usage Limitations: The future tense is a fundamental part of language and barely limited in its own right.

Derivatives: Most derivatives of the future tense are possible, except for conjunctive forms, as they are not necessary; and the past form, due to the contradiction it would cause.

-jo verbs: Replace the -(jo) stems in the table with -(jo)fetak to form further derivatives.

-mo verbs: Replace the -(mo) stems in the table with -(mo)jetak to form further derivatives.

Desire[]

-(jo)trnat or -(mo)jrnat

Explanation: The desire form can be considered the equivalent of the Luthori "I want to...", often used in close company or peers rather than formal situations due to its rather direct and personal nature:

Katakmojrnat. - "I want to sleep."

The unmodified present form is sometimes seen suffixed by ajozuo,ajomek or ajofetak to express current, past or future desires in a politer way, although this is rare:

Wakrjotrnat ajofetak. - "I will want to understand."

Usage Limitations: It is usually limited to expressing the speakers desires, whereas the volitional is used to speculate on those of other people. The form is used in personal situations or discussions with immediate superiors/juniors but seems too direct or perhaps petulent in other settings.

It can be used in campaign slogans or party names to express a core ideal of a movement.

Derivatives: The desire form can be modified by many forms, but not the imperative or volitional voices due to the conflict of tone; or the gerund as the noun form does not express the desire.

-jo verbs: Replace the -(jo) stems in the table with -(jo)trnat to form further derivatives.

-mo verbs: Replace the -(mo) stems in the table with -(mo)jrnat to form further derivatives.

Negative[]

-(jo)krza or -(mo)jrza

Explanation: The negative form negates the verb to form the Luthori "did not...":

Flakmojrza. Srnépukmojrza. Hikrna Hye orzy krjofetak." - "[I] did not wither. [I] did not surrender. Now you will die."

The origins of this form are believed to be an old Proto-Jelbic particle similar to yrzé/yrzá, except used for negative emphasis. Consonant shifts with the vowel classes have given rise to the distinct two suffixes since.

Usage Limitations: The negative form is a fundamental part of language and barely limited in its own right.

Derivatives: All derivatives can be negated.

-jo verbs: Replace the -(jo) stems in the table with -(jo)krza to form further derivatives.

-mo verbs: Replace the -(mo) stems in the table with -(mo)jrza to form further derivatives.

Conditional[]

-(jo)matra or -(mo)jatra

Explanation: The conditional form expresses an idea in an initial clause, without which the second clause is not valid. The Luthori "If..." or "When..." are the closest matches, except the language offers no distinction between the two, so difference between a possibility and a likely probability is not expressed:

Re Jajomatra, Re grzy krjofetak." - "If [I] meet him, he will die."
Jezstad drzy grundmojrzajatra, krjokrza." - "If [I] don't stay in the city, I won't die."

Note that the negative conditional form is perfectly valid.

Usage Limitations: Conditional forms are never sentence-final, but the second clause can be implied with ellipsis:

Kaerjomatra... - "If [I] return..."

Derivatives: Conditional forms can be made of most verb forms except the conjunctive, due to the contradiction of certainty versus condition; the imperative and volitional, as the speculative order and double speculation respectively would be nonsensical; and the gerund as the condition would not be expressed by the noun.

-jo verbs: Conditionals terminate a verb, therefore all derivative prefixes should precede -(jo)matra.

-mo verbs: Conditionals terminate a verb, therefore all derivative prefixes should precede -(mo)jatra.

Gerund[]

-(jo)gad or -(mo)jad

Explanation: The gerund expresses the concept of a verb as a noun. In Jelbic, the present gerund conveys both the action concept and the consequence:

Krsyijogad. - "Uniting" or "Union".

Technically, a gerund without an object is a non-verbal noun but the two are considered the same in Jelbic.

Usage Limitations: Gerunds are used in the same manner as all other nouns.

Derivatives: Gerunds are only formed with sentence-final nouns that indicate a solid concept. As such, conditional and conjunctive forms cannot form gerunds as they are not sentence-final, requiring a second unspecifed concept. Further, imperative, volitional and desire forms cannot form a gerund form as the concepts of command, speculation and desire would not be conveyed by the gerund of the root verb.

-jo verbs: Gerunds are final and all derivative prefixes should precede -(jo)gad.

-mo verbs: Gerunds are final and all derivative prefixes should precede -(mo)jad.

Adjectives and Adverbs[]

Adjectives and adverbs describe nouns and verbs respectively. They always directly precede the noun or verb in question, although several may prefix the same object or action.

In Jelbic, adjectives fall into three categories: true adjectives, which may be used as-is; nounal adjectives; and verbal adjectives, both of which take suffixes.

Adverbs can always be derived quickly from an adjective with a suffix and negation is acheived by similar means.

True Adjectives and Adverbs[]

Some standalone true adjectives exist, such as nrlak ("clear"). These are simply used directly as adjectives or take a suffix () to form the adverb:

Nrlak Káhe. - "[A] clear head."
Nrlaké bozumojuo. - "Clearly worsening."

Negatives are formed by adding the suffix -nyr to each:

Nrlaknyr Hnaj. - "[An] unclear bill (parliamentary)."
Nrlakényr utrmo. - "Speaking unclearly."

Nounal Adjectives and Adverbs[]

Nouns were originally turned into adjectives with the -srlji ("souled") suffix, but this is falling out of favour. Nouns now often become adjectives with the suffix for brevity. The -srlji form has a classical, almost poetic quality now and has long been obsolete in Pontesi.

Originally, this was the form for making adverbs from nouns and may yet still be used for such, although some speakers have used the -ék suffix, like the possessive, to denote that the action is almost the property of the condition.

Thankfully, the distinction is simple as nouns and verbs often look very different in the sentence. Both forms will be understood by most speakers and both can be negated with -nyr as the true adjectives:

Amrsrlji Ak/Amré Ak. - "Rainy day."
Skoé shlajo/Skoék shlajo. - "To fight steelily."
Pokrasrljinyr Shmas/Pokraényr Shmas. - "Powerless (lit. "unpowered") action."
Rímsaényr/Rímsaéknyr akrosmo. - "To punish unjustly (lit. *"unjusticeily") punishment."

Verbal Adjectives and Adverbs[]

The -jo and -mo classes of verbs have adjectival and adverbial forms as listed above in the conjugation table. Crucially, the -jo and -mo stems respectively are lost before the addition of the suffix. This prevents confusion with the passive voice in a lot of cases.

The adjectival form (and the adverbial form by extension) is only formed from the present form of the verb (the dictionary verb). Bear in mind that literal translations sound jarring in Luthori, but an equivalent word usually exists.

-jo-verb Adjectives/Adverbs[]

The -jo stem becomes -zi for adjectives and -za for adverbs:

Heizi Hatràjogad. - "Supporting (lit. *"supporty") work."
Krza ságmo. - "To announce dyingly (lit. *"deathily"); Last words."

Both forms are negated with -nyr as before:

Hidnzinyr Avjogad. - "Undeniable (lit. *"undeny-y") love."
Rgotzanyr sagjo. - "To say unregrettably."

-mo-verb Adjectives/Adverbs[]

The -mo stem becomes -ji for adjectives and -ja for adverbs:

Pntakji Shmas. - "Directed (lit. *"direct-y") action."
Thortja afrkmo. - "To ask reflectively."

Both forms are negated with -nyr as before:

Aprtjinyr Srnépukmojad. - "Unreported (lit. *"unreport-y") surrender."
Grzmojanyr hatajmo. - "To strive unvictoriously (lit. *"unwinningly")."

Numbers[]

Numbers in the Jelbic languages are slightly more complicated than the Luthori. Ordinal (for orders) and cardinal (for counts) numbers exist in the same way, but counting objects takes a set grammatical form. Ordinal number stems are suffixed with -za below 100 and -zà from 100 onwards; for cardinals these are -ba and -bí. These suffixes are sometimes removed when forming larger numbers.

The only exceptions so this rule, due to being very old words, are the ordinals isrà and zwitko ("first" and "second"), which are treated as having no suffix.

Care must also be taken because the Jelbic system counts larger numbers in a series of lakhs (100,000), rather than the Luthori system of a series of thousands.

Table of Numbers[]

Jelbic Numbers
Numeral Ordinal Cardinal Luthori
0-9
0 Nuza Nuba "Zeroth"/"Zero"
1 Isrà Isràba "First"/"One"
2 Zwitko Zwiba "Second"/"Two"
3 Torze Torba "Third"/"Three"
4 Kntze Kntba "Fourth"/"Four"
5 Snze Snba "Fifth"/"Five"
6 Heze Heba "Sixth"/"Six"
7 Náze Nába "Seventh"/"Seven"
8 Ayze Ayba "Eighth"/"Eight"
9 Kyuze Kyuba "Ninth"/"Nine"
10-19
10 Deze Deba "Tenth"/"Ten"
11 Deisràze Deisràba "Eleventh"/Eleven"
12 Dezwitkoze Dezwiba "Twelth"/"Twelth"
13 Detorze Detorba "Thirteenth"/"Thirteen"
14 Dekntze Dekntba "Fourteenth"/"Fourteen"
15 Desnze Desba "Fifteenth"/"Fifteen"
16 Deheze Deheba "Sixteenth"/"Sixteen"
17 Denáze Denába "Seventeenth"/"Seventeen"
18 Deayze Deayba "Eighteenth"/"Eighteen"
19 Dekyuze Dekyuba "Ninteenth"/"Nineteen"
20-100,000
20 Zwitkodeze Zwitkodeba "Twentieth"/"Twenty"
30 Tordeze Tordeba "Thirtieth"/"Thirty"
40 Kntdeze Kntdeba "Fourtieth"/"Forty"
50 Sndeze Sndeba "Fiftieth"/"Fifty"
60 Hedeze Hedeba "Sixtieth"/"Sixty"
70 Nádeze Nádeba "Seventieth"/"Seventy"
80 Aydeze Aydeba "Eightieth"/"Eighty"
90 Kyudeze Kyudeba "Nintieth"/"Ninety"
100 Setzà Setbí "Hundreth"/"Hundred"
200 Zwitkosetzà Zwisetbí "Two Hundreth"/"Two Hundred"
300 Torsetzà Torsetbí "Three Hundreth"/"Three Hundred"
400 Kntsetzà Kntsetbí "Four Hundreth"/"Four Hundred"
500 Snsetzà Snsetbí "Five Hundreth"/"Five Hundred"
600 Hesetzà Hesetbí "Six Hundreth"/"Six Hundred"
700 Násetzà Násetbí "Seven Hundreth"/"Seven Hundred"
800 Aysetzà Aysetbí "Eight Hundreth"/"Eight Hundred"
900 Kyusetzà Kyusetbí "Nine Hundreth"/"Nine Hundred"
1,000 Motzà Motbí "Thousandth"/"Thousand"
10,000 Zalzà Zalbí "Ten Thousandth"/"Ten Thousand"
100,000 Kytzà Kytbí "Hundred Thousandth"/"Hundred Thousand"
Multiples of 100,000
Jykzà Jykbí "Ten Billionth"/"Ten Billion"
Wakzà Wakbí "Quadrillionth"/"Quadrillionth"
Zrntzà Zrntbí "Hundred Quintillionth"/"Hundred Quintillion"

Formation of Ordinal Numbers[]

Jelbic ordinal numbers ("Third", "Fourth, "Fifth", etc.) have stems suffixed with -za below 100 and -zà from 100 onwards. The only exceptions to this are isrà and zwitko ("First" and "Second") which have no suffix.

Wherever a "stem" is referred to, it refers to a number with the suffix (if present) removed.

To form more specific numbers, the magnitudes (lakhs, myriads, thousands, hundreds, tens etc.) are listed from the highest used to individual units -- as in Luthori -- with the magnitudes preceded by the stem, without suffix, of the number of that magnitudes in the number.

Ordinal numbers between 11th and 99th are formed by modifying the number "ten", deze:

  • The stem of the number of tens goes in front of it;
  • The stem of the number of units goes before the final -ze.

Bearing in mind that Luthori "first" is isrà, 10th is deze and 100th is setzà, this is best represented with a series of examples:

11th-19th

  • 11th is deisràze, formed by inserting the stem isrà into deze;
  • 12th takes zwitko to make dezwitkoze;
  • 13th from tor (-ze removed) becomes detorze, etc.

20th-99th

  • 20th is made by prefixing deze (10th) with the stem for "2" (zwitko) to make zwitkodeze.
  • To make 21st, the deisràze from earlier ("11th") is prefixed with the stem for "2" (zwitko) to become zwitkodeisràze;
  • 31st takes the stem for "3" (tor, -ze removed) to become tordeisràze;
  • 41st takes "4" (knt, -ze removed) as kntdeisràze, etc.
  • These may be combined: 43rd takes "13th" (detorze) prefaced with the "4" stem (knt) to form kntdetorze.
  • 87th takes "17th" (denáze, from deze and the stem ), prefixed with "8" stem (ay) to form aydenáze.

100th-100,000th

  • 101st takes the stem for 100th (setzà) directly followed by first (isrà): setzàisrà. 102nd becomes setzàzwitko, 103rd setzàtorze etc.
  • 111th takes eleven in the same way: setzàdeisràze and all the other patterns as appropriate (e.g., 187th: setzàaydenáze).
  • 200th is formed from the stem for 100th in the same way 20th is formed from the stem for 10th: zwitkosetzà.
  • This may be followed by tens and units as formed above: 987th would be kyusetzàaydenáze, from "9" (kyu-), "100" (setzà) and 87th (aydenáze).
  • Thousands (motzà), Myriads/ten-thousands (zalzà) and lakhs/hundred-thousands (kytzà) are formed in the same way, with the magnitudes in descending order.

100,000th+

  • All numbers above 100,000th are declared in powers of 100,000 which have their own names. This is analogous to the Luthori system of declaring numbers of thousands with names for multiples ("thousandth", "millionth", "billionth", "trillionth", etc.): a "thousand thousandth" is never used as a "millionth" is clearer.
  • 10,000,000,000th is jykzà.
  • 1,000,000,000,000,000th is wakzà
  • 100,000,000,000,000,000,000th is zrntzà.

A large example 1,200,012,000,120,001,200,012,000th (conveniently 12,000 of each order (zalzàzwitkomotzà), with slashes put in to see the construction is:

Zalzàzwitkomotzà/zrntzà/zalzàzwitkomotzà/wakzà/zalzàzwitkomotzà/jykzà/zalzàzwitkomotzà/kytzà/zalzàzwitkomotzà.

lit. "Twelve-thousand lakh-lakh-lakh-lakhs, twelve-thousand lakh-lakh-lakhs, twelve-thousand lakh-lakhs, twelve-thousand lakhs and twelve thousandth."

Each order is declared just as Luthori declares "thousands", "millions", "billions", except that the Jelbic units are larger.

The short form of these numbers in Jelbic is similar to the Luthori shorthand system of nst, nnd, nrd and nth, usually taking the last two letters as a suffix:

  • for "Isrà"
  • 2ko for "Zwitko" (2o is seen but may look like "20")
  • nze for any order ending in 3rd to 99th (Torze to kyudekyuze)
  • nzà for any order ending in a whole hundred, thousand or higher.

Formation of Cardinal Numbers[]

Jelbic cardinal numbers ("Three", "Four", "Five", etc.) have stems suffixed with -ba below 100 and -bí from 100 onwards. This includes isràba and zwiba ("one" and "two"), unlike the ordinal numbers.

Wherever a "stem" is referred to, it refers to a number with the suffix (if present) removed.

To form more specific numbers, the magnitudes (lakhs, myriads, thousands, hundreds, tens etc.) are listed from the highest used to individual units -- as in Luthori -- with the magnitudes preceded by the stem, without suffix, of the number of that magnitudes in the number.

Cardinal numbers between 11th and 99th are formed by modifying the number "ten", deba:

  • The stem of the number of tens goes in front of it;
  • The stem of the number of units goes before the final -ba.

Bearing in mind that Luthori "first" is isràba, 10th is deba and 100th is setbí, this is best represented with a series of examples:

11-19

  • 11 is deisràba, formed by inserting the stem isrà (-ba removed) into deba;
  • 12 takes zwi (-ba removed) to make dezwiba;
  • 13 from tor (-ba removed) becomes detorba, etc.

20-99

  • 20 is made by prefixing deba (10) with the stem for "2" (zwi) to make zwideba.
  • To make 21, the deisràba from earlier ("11") is prefixed with the stem for "2" (zwi) to become zwideisràba;
  • 31 takes the stem for "3" (tor, -ba removed) to become tordeisràba;
  • 41 takes "4" (knt, -ze removed) as kntdeisràze, etc.
  • These may be combined: 43 takes "13" (detorba) prefaced with the "4" stem (knt) to form kntdetorba.
  • 87 takes "17" (denába, from deba and the stem ), prefixed with "8" stem (ay) to form aydenába.

100-100,000

  • 101 takes the stem for 100 (setbí) directly followed by first (isràba): setbísràba. 102 becomes setbízwiba, 103 setbítorba etc.
  • 111 takes eleven in the same way: setbídeisràba and all the other patterns as appropriate (e.g., 187: setbíaydenába).
  • 200 is formed from the stem for 100 in the same way 20 is formed from the stem for 10: zwibasetbí.
  • This may be followed by tens and units as formed above: 987 would be kyusetbíaydenába, from "9" (kyu-), "100" (setbí) and 87 (aydenába).
  • Thousands (motbí), Myriads/ten-thousands (zalbí) and lakhs/hundred-thousands (kytbí) are formed in the same way, with the magnitudes in descending order.

100,000+

  • All numbers above 100,000 are declared in powers of 100,000 which have their own names. This is analogous to the Luthori system of declaring numbers of thousands with names for multiples ("thousand", "million", "billion", "trillion", etc.): a "thousand thousand" is never used as a "million" is clearer.
  • 10,000,000,000 is jykbí.
  • 1,000,000,000,000,000 is wakbí
  • 100,000,000,000,000,000,000 is zrntbí.

A large example 1,200,012,000,120,001,200,012,000 (conveniently 12,000 of each order (zalbízwibamotbí), with slashes put in to see the construction is:

Zalbízwibamotbí/zrntbí/zalbízwibamotbí/wakbí/zalbízwibamotbí/jykbí/zalbízwibamotbí/kytbí/zalbízwibamotbí.

lit. "Twelve-thousand lakh-lakh-lakh-lakhs, twelve-thousand lakh-lakh-lakhs, twelve-thousand lakh-lakhs, twelve-thousand lakhs and twelve thousand."

Each order is declared just as Luthori declares "thousand", "million", "billion", except that the Jelbic units are larger.

Counters of Objects[]

To declare the number of objects in a sentence in Jelbic requires the object to be declared with wrzy (subject) then followed by the cardinal number with the suffix -ki to demonstrate a count. This is related to the moki particle ("more of") from earlier. Objects can be animate, inanimate, living, dead, conceptual... anything. These examples demonstrate its use:

Srwe wrzy snbaki. - "Five beers (lit. Beers: five items)".
Kriplyz hrzy grzozi Rekvaknsékai wrzy torbaki ajozuo. - "Over there, there are three fat Republicans (lit. In that place, large Repulican people: there are three.)"

Date and Time[]

To declare the specific date or time in Jelbic requires the date or time to be viewed as subdivisions of higher units. Ordinal numbers are used, as the date is declared as the "nth year's mth month's ith day's jth hour's kth minute", directly proceeding the time unit then using the -ék suffix for possession. Hours are considered in a 24 hour format.

If context makes the year, month or day obvious, they can be omitted. Here are some examples:

Motzàkyusetzàhedetorzenojuék deisràzeazmatiék zwitkodezwitkozeakék dezwitkozezlrntuék tordezegrna. - "22nd November 1963, 12:30pm"
1963n11a22 12z30 - The same in Jelbic short form (from Noju (year), Azmati (month), zlrntu (hour)).
  • 1: Zykzlrntu hrzy Domura hrzy fahmojetak zri. - "When (lit. at which hour) are we going to the village?"
  • 2: Desnzezlrntu. - "3pm (lit. the fifteenth hour)."
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